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The 2004 Symposium on Multilingual Student Writers

Literacy Connections: Cultivating Reading Skills and Strategies in the Writing Course

PRESENTATION

A strong theory of learning . . . will highlight the need for exposure to print through reading practice; the learning of a large vocabulary; fluency in reading; practice and assisted learning with more complex and difficult texts and tasks; practice in using strategies to understand the text, establish goals, and monitor comprehension processes; and supporting interaction and discussion around textual meaning . . . Writing about what is to be read or has been read is also a very good way to develop advanced academic reading abilities. (Grabe, 2001, p. 19)

1. Preview

• Literacy practices in the writing course.
• Teacher beliefs about teaching and teaching writing (Corbett, 1990; Freeman, 1996a, 1996b; Robinson, 1991).
• Views of literacy and literacy education.

2. L1 and L2 Literacy Development and the Sources of Literate Knowledge

• "Teaching writing IS teaching reading" (Kroll, 1993, p. 61).
• Reading processes are complex and dependent on: (1) Information in the text that initiates the process (2) The duration of the process (3) Information deployed during the process (4) Likely sources of mistakes and "short-circuits" (5) Information and relationships learned by the reader when the process ends (Just & Carpenter, 1987).
• Complexity of literate activity . . . . . . in the process of trying to understand a written text the reader has to perform a number of simultaneous tasks: decode the message by recognizing the written signs, interpret the message by assigning meaning to the string of words, and finally, understand what the author's intention was. In this process there are at least three participants: the writer, the text, and the reader. (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000, p. 119).

3. Models of Literacy and the Teaching of L1 and L2 Writing

• Writing instruction is literacy education.
• Literate practice is inherently social.
• Directionality in the reading-writing connection: Three hypotheses . . .

• Learnability and teachability of literacy skills.
• As we engage purposefully with texts, we "reflect on the complexities, deal with the puzzlements, and offer approximative readings . . . writing allows insights that may have been inaccessible . . . at the time the text was read" (Zamel, 1992, p. 472).
• Becoming literate means reading like a writer (Johns, 1997; Smith, 1984) and writing like a reader (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1984; Heller, 1999; Newell, Garriga, & Peterson, 2001).
• Preliminary conclusions from research on reading-writing connections:
• Good writers tend to be good readers; o Skilled writers tend to read frequently and extensively; o Effective readers tend to produce more effective school-based texts than do weak readers (Grabe, 2001, 2003; Reid, 1993; Stotsky, 1983).

4. L1 and L2 Literacy Connections: Reading Skills and Writing Proficiency

"Cumulative insights from [literacy] research have contributed to helping teachers find a variety of ways to exploit reading and writing connections" (Grabe, 2003, p. 242).

• Reading and writing development are mutually supportive in L1 literacy development. Interactions are more complex in the case of L2 and multilingual literacy development due to the influence of language proficiency, academic expertise, and strategic competence (Grabe, 2001).
• Transfer and non-transfer of L1-based literacy skills to L2 literacy activities. Linguistic threshold hypothesis (Alderson, 1984; Carrell, 1991; Cummins, 1981; Raimes, 1987).
• Literacy instruction can facilitate positive transfer (when transfer is possible) (Alderson, 1984; Grabe, 2001; Grabe & Stoller, 2001).
• Positive transfer of L1 literacy skills to L2 development may depend on linguistic proficiency. Advanced learners may require targeted, genre-oriented instruction to develop a broad base of effective reading and writing proficiencies (Carson et al., 1990; Grabe & Stoller, 2001, 2002; Hyon, 2002; Urquhart & Weir, 1998).

5. Extensive Reading in the Writing Curriculum

• Positive impact of extensive reading in L1 and L2 contexts (Belanger, 1987; Elley, 1991; Krashen, 1984, 1993; Stotsky, 1983).
• The "reading first" position (Day & Bamford, 1998; Krashen, 1984, 1985, 1993, 1994; McQuillan, 1994; Smith, 1984, 1988, 2004).
• "No one writes enough to learn more than a small fraction of what writers need to know" (Smith, 1988, p. 19).
• "We learn to write without suspecting that we are learning or what we learn. Everything points to the necessity of learning to write from what we read, as we read" (p. 20).

6. Reading and Writing as Socioliterate Practices: Genre-Oriented Approaches

• Developing literacy and literacies (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993, 2000; Fairclough, 2000; Zamel & Spack, 1998).
• Expanding our theories of genre (Halliday & Hasan, 1989; K. Hyland, 2002; Johns, 2003; Swales, 1990).
• Genre = "Configurations of meaning that are recurrently phased together to enact social practices" (Martin, 2002, p. 269)
• Genre knowledge is "abstract," "schematic," "systematic," and "conventional" (Johns, 1997, pp. 21-22).
• Applying socioliterate views to the teaching of reading and writing . . .

  [Literacy courses] should encourage student research into their own literacy and text histories, into current approaches to literate practices, and into strategies that work in a variety of contexts. We should encourage the investigation and critique of the literacy practices of others, particularly of more advanced students and faculty. . . . [Literacy courses should] become places in which students are able to assess their current practices and understandings and develop strategies for future rhetorical situations. (Johns, 1997, p. 19)

• Useful metaphors: the literacy club (Smith, 1988) and multiple literacies (Gee, 1996, 1998).
• "Text is . . . the link between reading and writing as the complementary halves of literacy . . . Text is where reader and writer meet and interact" (Eskey, 1993, p. 223).
• Goals of literacy education: (1) Motivate students to participate in literate communities and develop genre knowledge (Martin, 2002; Verhoeven & Snow, 2001); (2) Cultivate measurable literacy skills such as "word and phrase recognition, reading rate development, grammatical sentence writing, and organizing discourse in accordance with the established conventions" of particular genres (Eskey, 1993, p. 231).
• Carving a prominent niche for reading processes and practices: Explicitness, intentionality, and systematicity.

7. Insights from English for Academic Purposes (EAP), English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and Genre Studies

• The literacy educator as "surrogate".
• What learners need to understand about genres and socioliterate communities:
  1. The nature and purposes of the discipline or community of practice;
  2. The "membership rules" and value system of the discipline (Gee, 1992, 1999);
  3. The primary content and general boundaries of the discipline's core knowledge - what Geisler (1994) called "domain content";
  4. The formal characteristics of the genres and text types valued by expert members of the discipline or community of practice (e.g., rhetorical structure, register, stylistic features, preferred syntactic patterns, lexical choice, layout, mechanical and typographical conventions, and so forth);
  5. Audience expectations pertaining to the content, structure, form, and effect of texts and genres transacted within the community of practice;
  6. The text production and decoding strategies employed by expert members.

8. Guidelines for Socioliterate Classroom Practices

• "Draw from all possible resources" (Johns, 1997, p. 115). Investigate literacy practices and genre production processes. Consult experts (e.g., faculty and staff members on campus, professionals in the disciplines) and apprentices (e.g., advanced students). Compile, analyze, and deconstruct data samples.
• "Select reading texts carefully" (Johns, 1997, p. 117). Choose "full and unabridged, preserved just as they have been written" (p. 118). Draw teachable selections from appropriate genre categories. Assess audience and purpose. Study samples written for general and specialist readers. Seek out text samples with "visuals and other text-internal features" (p. 120) such as pictures, graphs, formulæ, and charts. Expose "language-related text-internal factors" to "prereveal information about textual content, organization, and argumentation" (p. 120) (e.g., topic sentences, conclusions, headings). 3.
• "Design carefully crafted writing assignments" (p. 122). Avoid essayist bias: Require "different genres, writer roles, audiences, and purposes" in the design of authentic literacy tasks. Induce students to assume "different roles as readers and writers" (p. 122). Practice writing for a variety of audiences. Construct tasks requiring learners to write "in different contexts and under varying constraints," from multidrafting to writing "quickly, under pressure" (p. 123). Integrate "a variety of conventions and values" (p. 123) into assignments so that students "deal with content issues in a variety of ways within a variety of texts and contexts" (p. 124).

9. Summary

• Jabbour (2001): "Reading and writing are literacy skills, acquired gradually and based on the transfer of skills from one mode to another" (p. 293).

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Other Resources

Guidelines for graphic organizers: http://www.wm.edu/TTAC/articles/learning/graphic.htm

Repository for information on extensive reading: http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/er/

URL for the International Reading Association: http://www.reading.org/

Grabe and Stoller Teaching and Researching Reading Companion Website: http://www.booksites.net/grabe/

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